Tasmanian Devil

Tasmanian Devil[1]
A male Tasmanian Devil.
Conservation status

Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[2]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Infraclass: Marsupialia
Order: Dasyuromorphia
Family: Dasyuridae
Genus: Sarcophilus
Species: Sarcophilus harrisii
Binomial name
Sarcophilus harrisii
(Boitard, 1841)

The Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) is a carnivorous marsupial now found in the wild only in the Australian island state of Tasmania.

The Tasmanian devil is the only extant member of the genus Sarcophilus. The size of a small dog, but stocky and muscular, the Tasmanian devil is now the largest carnivorous marsupial in the world after the extinction of the thylacine in 1936. It is characterized by its black fur, pungent odour when stressed, extremely loud and disturbing screech, and ferocity when feeding. It is known to both hunt prey and scavenge carrion and although it is usually solitary, it sometimes eats with other devils.

The date that the Tasmanian devil disappeared from the Australian mainland is unclear; there is evidence they may have persisted until 430 years ago, although archaeologist Oliver Brown disputes this and has put forward the date of their mainland extinction at around 3000 years ago,[3] well before European settlement in 1788. Because they were seen as a threat to livestock in Tasmania, devils were hunted until 1941, when they became officially protected.

Since the late 1990s, devil facial tumour disease has reduced the devil population significantly and now threatens the survival of the species, which in May 2009 was declared to be endangered. Programs are currently being undertaken by the Government of Tasmania to reduce the impact of the disease.

Contents

Taxonomy

Naturalist George Harris wrote the first published description of the Tasmanian devil in 1807, naming it Didelphis ursina.[4] In 1838 the devil was renamed Dasyurus laniarius by Richard Owen, before being moved to the genus Sarcophilus in 1841 and named Sarcophilus harrisii, or "Harris's meat-lover", by Pierre Boitard. A later revision of the devil's taxonomy, published in 1987, attempted to change the species name to Sarcophilus laniarius based on mainland fossil records of only a few animals.[5] However, this was not accepted by the taxonomic community at large; the name S. harrisii has been retained and S. laniarius relegated to a fossil species.[1]

Beelzebub's pup was an early vernacular name given it by explorers of Tasmania.[6]

The Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) belongs to the family Dasyuridae. The genus Sarcophilus contains two other species known only from Pleistocene fossils, S. laniarius and S. moomaensis. The relationships between the three species are not clear. Phylogenetic analysis shows that the devil is most closely related to quolls, and more distantly to the extinct Thylacine (Tasmanian Tiger).[7]

Description

Tasmanian devil skull in The Museum of Zoology, St. Petersburg
The Tasmanian Devils' whiskers help them to locate prey in the dark

The Tasmanian devil is the largest surviving carnivorous marsupial in Australia. It has a squat and thick build, with a large head and a tail which is about half its body length. Unusually for a marsupial, its forelegs are slightly longer than its hind legs. Devils can run up to 13 km (8.1 mi) per hour for short distances. The fur is usually black, although irregular white patches on the chest and rump are common.[8] These markings suggest that the devil is most active at dawn and dusk. It is hypothesised that these marks focus biting attacks to less important areas of the body. Around 16% of wild devils do not have white patches.[9] Males are usually larger than females, having an average head and body length of 652 mm (25.7 in), with a 258 mm (10.2 in) tail, and an average weight of 8 kg (18 lb). Females have an average head and body length of 570 mm (22 in), with a 244 mm (9.6 in) tail, and an average weight of 6 kg (13 lb).[8] Few devils live longer than five years old in the wild.[10]

The devil stores body fat in its tail, so unhealthy devils often have thin tails. An ano-genital scent gland at the base of its tail is used to mark the ground behind them with its scent. When agitated, the devil can produce a strong odour, its pungency rivalling even the skunk.

The devil has long whiskers on its face and in clumps on the top of the head. These help the devil locate prey when foraging in the dark, and aid in detecting when other devils are close during feeding. Hearing is its dominant sense, and it also has an excellent sense of smell. Since devils hunt at night, their vision seems to be strongest in black and white. In these conditions they can detect moving objects readily, but have difficulty seeing stationary objects.[11]

An analysis of mammalian bite force relative to body size shows that the devil has the strongest bite of any living mammal, over 5,100 psi (35,000 kPa).[12] The power of the jaws is in part due to its comparatively large head. A Tasmanian devil also has one set of teeth that grows slowly throughout its life.[11] The teeth and jaws of Tasmanian devils resemble those of hyenas, an example of convergent evolution.[13]

Reproduction

Developmental steps in the maturation of Tasmanian Devil young. The diagonal lines indicate the amount of time the changes take; for example, it takes about 90 days for a devil to develop fur over all its body.

Females start to breed when they reach sexual maturity, typically in their second year. At this point, they become fertile once a year, producing multiple ova while in heat.[14] Mating occurs in March, in sheltered locations during both day and night. Males fight over females in the breeding season, and female devils will mate with the dominant male. Devils are not monogamous, and females will mate with several males if not guarded after mating. Gestation lasts 21 days, and devils give birth to 20–30 young,[11] each weighing approximately 0.18–0.24 grams.[15] When the young are born, competition is fierce as they move from the vagina to the pouch. Once inside the pouch, they each remain attached to a nipple for the next 100 days. The female Tasmanian Devil's pouch, like that of the wombat, opens to the rear, so it is physically difficult for the female to interact with young inside the pouch. Despite the large litter at birth, the female has only four nipples, so there are never more than four babies nursing in the pouch; and the older a female devil gets, the smaller her litters will become.[11] On average, more females survive than males,[14] and up to 60% of pups do not survive to maturity.[16]

Inside the pouch, the nourished young develop quickly. At 15 days the external parts of the ear are visible. Eyelids are apparent at 16 days, whiskers at 17 days, and the lips at 20 days. The young start to grow fur at 49 days and have a full coat by 90 days. Their eyes open shortly after their fur coat develops—between 87 and 93 days—and their mouths can relax their hold of the nipple at 100 days.[14] They leave the pouch 105 days after birth, appearing as small copies of the parent and weighing approximately 500 grams (18 oz). Unlike kangaroo joeys, young devils do not return to the pouch; instead, they remain in the den for another three months, first venturing outside the den between October and December before becoming independent in January. Female devils are occupied with raising their young for all but approximately six weeks of the year.

In an apparent response to reduced competition caused by devil facial tumour disease, female devils in regions with the disease are now more likely to begin breeding at one year old.[10]

Ecology and behaviour

Although Tasmanian devils are nocturnal, they like to rest in the sun. Scarring from fighting is visible next to this devil's left eye.

Tasmanian devils are widespread and fairly common throughout Tasmania, but are quickly dying from a contagious facial cancer. Found in all habitats on the island, including the outskirts of urban areas, they particularly like dry sclerophyll forests and coastal woodlands. The Tasmanian devil is a nocturnal and crepuscular hunter, spending the days in dense bush or in a hole. Young devils can climb trees, but this becomes more difficult as they grow larger. Devils can also swim. They are predominantly solitary animals and do not form packs.[15] Despite this, all devils in a region are part of a single social network.[17] They occupy territories of 8–20 km², which can overlap considerably amongst different animals.

A devil eating kangaroo

Tasmanian devils can take prey up to the size of a small kangaroo, but in practice they are opportunistic and eat carrion more often than they hunt live prey. Although the devil favours wombats, it will eat all small native mammals, domestic mammals (including sheep), birds, fish, insects, frogs and reptiles. Their diet is largely varied and depends on the food available.[11] On average, they eat about 15% of their body weight each day; however, they can eat up to 40% of their body weight in 30 minutes if the opportunity arises.[18] Tasmanian devils can eliminate all traces of a carcass of a smaller animal, devouring the bones and fur if desired.[19] In this respect, the devil has earned the gratitude of Tasmanian farmers, as the speed at which they clean a carcass helps prevent the spread of insects that might otherwise harm livestock.[20]

Although they hunt alone,[11] eating is a social event for the Tasmanian devil. Much of the noise attributed to the animal is a result of raucous communal eating, at which up to 12 individuals can gather,[18] (although groups of 2 to 5 are common[21]) and can often be heard several kilometres away. A study of feeding devils identified 20 physical postures, including their characteristic vicious yawn, and the 11 different vocal sounds that devils use to communicate as they feed. They usually establish dominance by sound and physical posturing, although fighting does occur.[18] Adult males are the most aggressive, and scarring is common from fighting over food and mates.[22]

Owen and Pemberton believe that the relationship between Tasmanian devils and Thylacines was "close and complex", as they directly competed for prey and probably also shelter, the thylacines preyed on the devils, the devils scavenged from the Thylacine's kills, and the devils ate Thylacine young. Menna Jones hypothesises that the two species shared the role of being the apex predator in Tasmania.[23]

Juvenile devils are sometimes known to climb trees;[24] in addition to small vertebrates and invertebrates, juveniles climb trees to eat grubs and birds' eggs. Young devils are predominantly crepuscular.[16]

Devils use three or four dens regularly. Dens formerly owned by wombats are especially prized as maternity dens due to their security. Dense vegetation near creeks, thick grass tussocks, and caves are also used as dens. Adult devils use the same dens for life. Young pups remain in one den with their mother, and other devils are mobile.[25]

Conservation status

For some time, Tasmania was the last refuge of large marsupial carnivores. The larger carnivorous marsupials became extinct in mainland Australia shortly after humans arrived. Only the smallest and most adaptable survived. Fossil evidence from western Victoria shows that Tasmanian devils retained a place on the Australian mainland until around 600 years ago (about 400 years before European colonisation).[8] The cause of their extinction is unclear, but their decline seems to coincide with the expansion across the mainland of indigenous Australians and dingoes. However, whether it was direct hunting by people, competition with dingoes, or changes brought about by the increasing human population, who by 3000 years ago were using all habitat types across the continent, (or a combination of all three) is unknown; devils had coexisted with dingoes on the mainland for around 3000 years.[26] Oliver Brown has disputed remains dated within the last 500 years, and proposed there were three relict populations dating from between 4000 and 300 years ago.[3] In dingo-free Tasmania,[27] carnivorous marsupials were still active when Europeans arrived. The extermination of the thylacine after the arrival of the Europeans is well known,[28] but the Tasmanian devil was threatened as well.

The first Tasmanian settlers ate Tasmanian devil, which they described as tasting like veal.[4] As it was believed devils would hunt and kill livestock, a bounty scheme to remove the devil from rural properties was introduced as early as 1830. Over the next 100 years, trapping and poisoning[29] brought them to the brink of extinction. After the death of the last thylacine in 1936, the threat to the devils was recognised. The Tasmanian devil was protected by law in 1941 and the population slowly recovered.

At least two major population declines, possibly due to a disease epidemic, have occurred in recorded history: in 1909 and 1950.[8] The Tasmanian devil's current population is reported by Tasmania's Department of Primary Industries and Water as being in the range of 10,000 to 100,000 individuals, with 20,000 to 50,000 mature individuals being likely.[11] Experts estimate that the devil has suffered a more than 80% decline in its population since the mid-1990s and only around 10,000–15,000 remain in the wild.[30]

The species was listed as vulnerable under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 in 2005[31] and the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999[32] in 2006 which means that it is at risk of extinction in the "medium term". The IUCN classified the Tasmanian Devil as in the lower risk/least concern in 1996[2] but in 2009 they were reclassified as endangered.[2][33]

The decline in devil numbers is also seen as an ecological problem, since its presence in the Tasmanian forest ecosystem is believed to have prevented the establishment of the red fox, illegally introduced to Tasmania in 2001.[34] Foxes are a problematic invasive species in all other Australian states, and the establishment of foxes in Tasmania would hinder the recovery of the Tasmanian devil. It is believed that Tasmanian Devil young would be vulnerable to red fox predation, as they are left alone for long periods of time.[35]

Habitat disruption can expose dens where mothers raise their young. This increases mortality. The mother leaves the disturbed den with her pups clinging to her back, which makes them more vulnerable.[36]

Cancer in general is a common cause of death in devils.[37]

Devil facial tumour disease

First seen in 1996, devil facial tumour disease (DFTD) has ravaged Tasmania's wild devils, and estimates of the impact range from 20% to as much as a 50% decline in the devil population with over 65% of the state affected.[38][39] Individual devils die within months of infection.[40]

Wild Tasmanian devil populations are being monitored to track the spread of the disease and to identify changes in disease prevalence. Field monitoring involves trapping devils within a defined area to check for the presence of the disease and determine the number of affected animals. The same area is visited repeatedly to characterise the spread of the disease over time. So far, it has been established that the short-term effects of the disease in an area can be severe. Long-term monitoring at replicated sites will be essential to assess whether these effects remain, or whether populations can recover.[39] Field workers are also testing the effectiveness of disease suppression by trapping and removing diseased devils. It is hoped that the removal of diseased devils from wild populations should decrease disease prevalence and allow more devils to survive beyond their juvenile years and breed.[39]

The disease is an example of a transmissible cancer, which means that it is contagious and passed from one animal to another.[41] Short of a cure, scientists are removing the sick animals and quarantining healthy devils in case the wild population dies out.[41] Because Tasmanian devils have extremely low levels of genetic diversity and a chromosomal mutation unique among carnivorous mammals, they are more prone to the infectious cancer.[42]

Recent research from the University of Sydney has shown that the infectious facial cancer may be able to spread because of vanishingly low genetic diversity in devil immune genes (MHC class I and II)—raising questions about how well small, and potentially inbred, populations of animals are able to survive.[43]

Scientists have been shocked to find high levels of potentially carcinogenic flame retardant chemicals in Tasmanian devils. Preliminary results of tests ordered by the Tasmanian government on chemicals found in fat tissue from 16 devils have revealed high levels of hexabromobiphenyl (BB153) and "reasonably high" levels of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE209).[44]

In captivity

Early attempts to breed Tasmanian Devils in captivity had limited success. Mary Roberts bred a pair at Beaumaris Zoo which she named Billy and Truganini in 1913, however, although advised to remove Billy, Roberts found Truganini too distressed by his absence and Roberts returned him. The first litter was presumed eaten by Billy, but a second litter in 1914 survived after Billy was removed. Roberts wrote an article on keeping and breeding the devils for the London Zoological Society.[45] Even by 1934, successful breeding of the devil was rare.[46] In a study on the growth of young devils in captivity, some developmental stages were very different from those reported by Guiler. The pinnae were free on day 36, and eyes opened later, on days 115–121.[47]

In general, females tend to retain more stress after being taken into captivity than males.[48]

A plan to make an insurance population of disease-free devils in captivity has been ongoing since 2005. As of January 2010, this population has 277 members. Devils are held at many Australian zoos and wildlife reserves.[49]

Restrictions on the export of the Tasmanian devil means that devils can normally only be seen in captivity in Australia. The last known overseas devil, Coolah, died at the Fort Wayne Children's Zoo, Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA, in 2004.[50] Living to seven and a half years old, he may be the oldest Tasmanian Devil recorded.[51] However, the Tasmanian government has sent a pair of devils to the Copenhagen Zoo, following the birth of the first son of Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark and his Tasmanian-born wife Mary in October 2005.[52] These are the only devils that can be seen outside Australia.

Relationship with humans

At Lake Nitchie in 1970, a male human skeleton wearing a necklace of 178 teeth from 49 different devils was found. The skeleton is estimated to be 7000 years old, and the necklace is believed to be much older than the skeleton. An archeologist, Josephine Flood, believes the devil was hunted for its teeth which contributed to its extinction on mainland Australia. Owen and Pemberton note that few such necklaces have been found.[53] Middens that contain devil bones are rare - two notable examples are Devil's Lair in south-west Western Australia and Tower Hill in Victoria.[54]

In Tasmania, Tasmanian Aboriginals and devils sheltered in the same caves. Tasmanian Aboriginal names for the devil recorded by Europeans include "tarrabah", "poirinnah", and "par-loo-mer-rer".[55] According to Fritz Noetling, the Secretary of the Royal Society of Tasmania in 1910, there was no evidence that Tasmanian Aboriginals ate any carnivorous animals. Owen and Pemberton feel this may have contributed to the devil's survival prior to European settlement.[54]

Cultural references

The Tasmanian devil is an iconic animal within Australia and the state of Tasmania; it is the symbol of the Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Service, and the former Tasmanian Australian rules football team which played in the Victorian Football League was known as the Devils. The defunct Hobart Devils basketball team in the National Basketball League was also named after the animal. The devil was one of six native Australian animals to appear on commemorative Australian two dollar coins issued between 1989 and 1994. Tasmanian devils are popular with domestic and international tourists. Because of their unique personality the Tasmanian devil has been the subject of numerous documentaries and non-fiction children's books. The most recent Australian documentary on the Tasmanian devil, Terrors of Tasmania, directed and produced by David Parer and Elizabeth Parer-Cook, was released in 2005. The documentary follows a female devil called Manganinnie through breeding season and the birth and rearing of her young. The documentary also looks at the effect of devil facial tumour disease and the conservation measures being taken to ensure survival of the Tasmanian devil.[56] The documentary has screened on television in Australia and in the United States on the National Geographic Channel.

The Tasmanian devil is probably best known internationally as the inspiration for the Looney Tunes cartoon character the Tasmanian Devil, or "Taz" in 1954. Little known at the time, the loud hyperactive cartoon character has little in common with the real life animal.[57] After a few shorts between 1957 and 1964, the character was retired until the 1990s, when he gained his own show, Taz-Mania, and again became popular.[58] In 1997, a newspaper report noted that Warner Bros. had "trademarked the character and registered the name Tasmanian Devil", and that this trademark "was policed", including an eight year legal case to allow a Tasmanian company to call a fishing lure the Tasmanian Devil. Debate followed, and a delegation from the Tasmanian government met with Warner Bros.[59] Ray Groom, the Tourism Minister, later announced that a "verbal agreement" had been reached. An annual fee would be paid to Warner Bros. in return for the Government of Tasmania being able to use the image of Taz for "marketing purposes". This agreement later disappeared.[60] In 2006, Warner Bros. permitted the Government of Tasmania to sell stuffed toys of Taz with profits going towards research into devil facial tumour disease.[61]

Researchers have also named a genetic-mutant mouse "the Tasmanian Devil". The mutant mouse is defective in the development of sensory-hair cells of the ear, leading the mutant to abnormal behaviours including head-tossing and circling,[62] more like the cartoon "Taz" than the actual Tasmanian Devil.

There is a DC superhero called Tasmanian Devil, a were-Tasmanian Devil who first appeared in Super Friends #7 in 1977 and was revealed to be dead in Justice League: Cry for Justice in 2009.[63]

For the 2.6.29 release of the Linux kernel, Linus Torvalds temporarily replaced the Tux mascot with a Tasmanian devil mascot named 'Tuz', in support of the Save the Tasmanian Devil Campaign.[64]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Groves, C. (2005). Wilson, D. E., & Reeder, D. M, eds. ed. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 28. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494. http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Hawkins, C.E., McCallum, H., Mooney, N., Jones, M. & Holdsworth, M. (2008). Sarcophilus harrisii. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 12 October 2008. Listed as Endangered(EN A2be+3e v3.1)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Brown, Oliver (2006). "Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) extinction on the Australian mainland in the mid-Holocene: multicausality and ENSO intensification.". Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Paleontology 31: 49–57. doi:10.1080/03115510609506855. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Harris, G. P. 1807. Description of two species of Didelphis for Van Diemen's Land. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, Volume IX
  5. ↑ Werdelin, L. (1987). "Some observations on Sarcophilus laniarius and the evolution of Sarcophilus.". Records of the Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston 90: 1–27. 
  6. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, p. 8.
  7. ↑ Krajewski, C. et al. 1992. Phylogenetic relationships of the thylacine (Mammalia:Thylacinidae) among dasyuroid marsupials: evidence from cytochrome b DNA sequences. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 250:19–27 PMID 1361058
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Guiler, E.R. 1983. Tasmanian Devil in R. Strahan Ed. The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals. pp. 27–28. Angus & Robertson ISBN 0-207-14454-0
  9. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 46–47.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 http://www.pnas.org/content/105/29/10023.full
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment. Tasmanian Devil - Frequently Asked Questions archive
  12. ↑ Wroe, S, McHenry, C, and Thomason, J. 2005. Bite club: comparative bite force in big biting mammals and the prediction of predatory behaviour in fossil taxa. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 272:619–625 PMID 15817436
  13. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica. "Tasmanian devil (marsupial)". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583942/Tasmanian-devil. Retrieved 2010-03-16. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Guiler, E.R. 1970. Observations on the Tasmanian devil, Sarcophilus harrisii II. Reproduction, Breeding and Growth of Pouch Young. Australian Journal of Zoology 18:63–70
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Fisher, D.O. et al. 2001. The ecological basis of life history variation in marsupials, Appendix A. Ecology 82:3531–3540
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Owen and Pemberton, p. 69.
  17. ↑ "Social Networking Study Reveals Threat To Tasmanian Devils". Science Daily. 19 August 2009. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/08/090819064033.htm. Retrieved 26 August 2010. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Pemberton, D; Renouf, D. (1993). "A field-study of communication and social behaviour of Tasmanian Devils at feeding sites". Australian Journal of Zoology 41: 507–26. 
  19. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 11–15, 20, 36.
  20. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, p. 14.
  21. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, p. 71.
  22. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 71–73.
  23. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 43–47.
  24. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 49–50.
  25. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 76–77.
  26. ↑ Johnson, C.N. and Wroe, S. 2003. Causes of extinction of vertebrates during the Holocene of mainland Australia: arrival of the dingo, or human impact? Holocene 13: 941–948 doi:10.1191/0959683603hl682fa
  27. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, p. 40.
  28. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, p. 43.
  29. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 19, 26–27.
  30. ↑ Connellan, Ian (October–December 2008). "Tasmanian devils: Devil coast". Australian Geographic. http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/tasmanian-devils-devil-coast.htm. Retrieved 22 August 2010. 
  31. ↑ Department of the Environment and Heritage. July 2006. EPBC Policy Statement 3.6 - Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii)
  32. ↑ "Sarcophilus harrisii — Tasmanian Devil". Environment.gov.au. http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=299. Retrieved 2010-08-28. 
  33. ↑ Mercer, Phil (2009-05-22). "Asia-Pacific | Tasmanian devils now endangered". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/8062840.stm. Retrieved 2010-03-16. 
  34. ↑ Bostanci, A. 2005. A Devil of a Disease. Science, 307:1035 PMID 15718445
  35. ↑ "Foxes in Tasmania – A Grave Threat to Our Wildlife". Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment. 2010-05-25. http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/SJON-52J8U3?open. Retrieved 2010-08-28. 
  36. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 75–76.
  37. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, p. 171
  38. ↑ "Devil Facial Tumour Disease Update". Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment. June 2005. http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/Attachments/LBUN-6D73V5/$FILE/Tas_devil_update_June2005.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-31. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 "Tasmanian Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) Disease Management Strategy". Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment. February 2005. http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/Attachments/LBUN-6996MH/$FILE/DFTD_DMS_Feb05a.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-31. 
  40. ↑ "Devil Facial Tumour Disease". Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment. http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/LBUN-5QF86G?open. Retrieved 2010-08-31. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Shea, N. Wildlife: Devils in danger. National Geographic Magazine, November 2006.
  42. ↑ Project to Save Endangered Tasmanian Devil Newswise, Retrieved on November 3, 2008.
  43. ↑ "Tasmanian devil epidemic: cause isolated?". Cosmos Magazine. 27 June 2007. http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/1412. 
  44. ↑ Denholm, Matthew (2008-01-22). "Cancer agents found in Tasmanian devils". News.com.au. http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,23087523-421,00.html. Retrieved 2010-03-16. 
  45. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 84–93.
  46. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 67–69.
  47. ↑ Phillips, B. T. and S. M. Jackson. 2003. Growth and development of the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria, Australia. Zoo Biology 22:497–505.
  48. ↑ Jones, S. M., T. J. Lockhart, and R. W. Rose. 2005. Adaptation of wild-caught Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii) to captivity: evidence from physical parameters and plasma cortisol concentrations. Australian Journal of Zoology 53:339–344.
  49. ↑ http://www.tassiedevil.com.au/tasdevil.nsf/Insurance-population/208FDBC98145099FCA2576C7001651E1
  50. ↑ Last Tasmanian Devil not in Australia dies United Press International, HighBeam Research
  51. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, p. 140.
  52. ↑ Tassie sends devils to celebrate birth, AAP, October 17, 2005
  53. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, p. 42.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Owen and Pemberton, p. 41.
  55. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, p. 3.
  56. ↑ "ABC Television: Program summary - Terrors Of Tasmania:". ABC.net.au. January 2005. http://www.abc.net.au/tv/guide/netw/200501/highlights/246710.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-28. 
  57. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, p. 12.
  58. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 156–160.
  59. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 161–164.
  60. ↑ Owen and Pemberton, pp. 167, 169.
  61. ↑ http://www.smh.com.au/news/National/Warner-Bros-to-help-save-Tassie-devils/2006/06/20/1150701535616.html
  62. ↑ Erven, A. et al. 2002. A novel stereocilia defect in sensory hair cells of the deaf mouse mutant Tasmanian Devil. European Journal of Neuroscience 16:1433–1441 PMID 12405956
  63. ↑ James Robinson, Justice League: Cry For Justice #3, released September 2009.
  64. ↑ corbet (2009-03-17). "The kernel gets a new logo". Lwn.net. http://lwn.net/Articles/323966/. Retrieved 2010-03-16. 

Further reading

External links